Wayzata World Factbook 1995/World Factbook - 1995 Edition - Wayzata Technology (1995).iso/mac/text/Build/CIATXTpc/ANTARCTI.TXT

Text File | 1994-11-29 | 13KB | 285 lines

                                Antarctica




                                 Geography


Location:
     continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Map references:
     Antarctic Region
Area:
total area:
     14 million sq km (est.)
land area:
     14 million sq km (est.)
comparative area:
     slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
note:
     second-smallest continent (after Australia)
Land boundaries:
     none, but see entry on International disputes
Coastline:
     17,968 km
Maritime claims:
     none, but see entry on International Disputes
International disputes:
     Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below);
     sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile,
     France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen
     Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the
     territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves
     (the US reserves the right to do so); no formal claims have been made
     in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
Climate:
     severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance
     from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because
     of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate
     climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and
     average slightly below freezing
Terrain:
     about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
     elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 4,897
     meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria
     Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross
     Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of
     the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of
     the continent
Natural resources:
     none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel,
     platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found
     in small, uncommercial quantities
Land use:
arable land:
     0%
permanent crops:
     0%
meadows and pastures:
     0%




forest and woodland:
     0%
other:
     100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Irrigated land:
     0 sq km
Environment:
current issues:
     in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects
     the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled
     to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when
     measurements were first taken
natural hazards:
     katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high
     interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau;
     cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the
     coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West
     Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
international agreements:
     NA
Note:
     the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer
     more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is
     received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable


                                  People


Population:
     no indigenous inhabitants; note - there are seasonally staffed
     research stations
Summer (January) population:
     over 4,115 total; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80,
     Chile 256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32,
     Greenpeace 12, India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14,
     Netherlands 10, NZ 264, Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa
     79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116, Uruguay NA, US 1,666, former USSR 565
     (1989-90)
Winter (July) population:
     over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73,
     China NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 1, Japan 38,
     South Korea 14, NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA,
     US 225, former USSR 313 (1989-90)
Year-round stations:
     42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2,
     Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1,
     Poland 1, South Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, former USSR 6
     (1990-91)
Summer only stations:
     over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile 5, Germany 3, India 1,
     Italy 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1,
     Sweden 2, UK 1, US numerous, former USSR 5 (1989-90); note - the
     disintegration of the former USSR has placed the status and future of
     its Antarctic facilities in doubt; stations may be subject to closings
     at any time because of ongoing economic difficulties




                                Government


Names:
conventional long form:
     none
conventional short form:
Digraph:
     AY
Type:
Antarctic Treaty Summary:
     The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force
     on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of
     Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member
     meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan
     in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26
     consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include
     the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national
     territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and
     some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to
     do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in
     parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full
     consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was
     an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina,
     Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
     consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985),
     Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy
     (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989),
     Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay
     (1985), the US, and Russia.
     Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses,
     are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988),
     Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987),
     Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea
     (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and
     Ukraine (1992).
Article 1:
     area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as
     weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment
     may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose
Article 2:
     freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue
Article 3:
     free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN
     and other international agencies
Article 4:
     does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no
     new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force
Article 5:
     prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
Article 6:
     includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees
     00 minutes south




Article 7:
     treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation,
     to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and
     equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of
     military personnel must be given
Article 8:
     allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own
     states
Article 9:
     frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations
Article 10:
     treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica
     that are contrary to the treaty
Article 11:
     disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or,
     ultimately, by the ICJ
Article 12, 13, 14:
     deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among
     involved nations
Other agreements:
     more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings
     and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the
     Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the
     Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation
     of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources
     agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; in 1991
     the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was
     signed and awaits ratification; this agreement provides for the
     protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes
     on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact
     assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits
     all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific
     research; nine parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1994
Legal system:
     US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US
     nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction
     of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For
     example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et
     seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following
     activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: The taking of
     native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and
     animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the
     discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US
     of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic
     Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and 1
     year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation,
     and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541,
     the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from
     the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and
     Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520,
     which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic
     Treaty. For more information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar
     Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230
     (703-306-1031).




                                  Economy


Overview:
     No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and
     small-scale tourism, both based abroad.


                              Communications


Ports:
     none; offshore anchorage only at most coastal stations
Airports:
     42 landing facilities at different locations operated by 15 national
     governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility operated
     by commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization; helicopter pads
     at 28 of these locations; runways at 10 locations are gravel, sea ice,
     glacier ice, or compacted snow surface suitable for wheeled fixed-wing
     aircraft; no paved runways; 16 locations have snow-surface skiways
     limited to use by ski-equipped planes--11 runways/skiways 1,000 to
     3,000 m, 3 runways/skiways less than 1,000 m, 5 runways/skiways
     greater than 3,000 m, and 7 of unspecified or variable length;
     airports generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations
     resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; airports do
     not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective
     governmental or non-governmental operating organization required for
     landing


                              Defense Forces


Note:
     the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such
     as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the
     carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of
     weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for
     scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes